What Is Discourse Analysis?
Discourse analysis is the examination of language use by
members of a speech community. It involves looking at both
language form and language function and includes the study
of both spoken interaction and written texts. It identifies linguistic
features that characterize different genres as well as
social and cultural factors that aid in our interpretation and
understanding of different texts and types of talk. A discourse
analysis of written texts might include a study of topic development
and cohesion across the sentences, while an analysis
of spoken language might focus on these aspects plus turntaking
practices, opening and closing sequences of social encounters,
or narrative structure.
The study of discourse has developed in a variety of disciplines—
sociolinguistics, anthropology, sociology, and social
psychology. Thus discourse analysis takes different theoretical
perspectives and analytic approaches: speech act theory,
interactional sociolinguistics, ethnography of communication,
pragmatics, conversation analysis, and variation analysis
(Schiffrin, 1994). Although each approach emphasizes different
aspects of language use, they all view language as social
interaction.
This digest focuses on the application of discourse analysis
to second language teaching and learning. It provides examples
of how teachers can improve their teaching practices
by investigating actual language use both in and out of the
classroom, and how students can learn language through
exposure to different types of discourse. Detailed introductions
to discourse analysis, with special attention to the needs
and experiences of language teachers, can be found in Celce-
Murcia and Olshtain (2000), Hatch (1992), McCarthy (1992),
McCarthy and Carter (1994), and Riggenbach (1999).
Discourse Analysis and Second Language
Teaching
Even with the most communicative approaches, the second
language classroom is limited in its ability to develop
learners’ communicative competence in the target language.
This is due to the restricted number of contact hours with
the language; minimal opportunities for interacting with
native speakers; and limited exposure to the variety of functions,
genres, speech events, and discourse types that occur
outside the classroom. Given the limited time available for
students to practice the target language, teachers should maximize
opportunities for student participation. Classroom research
is one way for teachers to monitor both the quantity
and quality of students’ output. By following a four-part process
of Record-View-Transcribe-Analyze, second language
teachers can use discourse analytic techniques to investigate
the interaction patterns in their classrooms and to see how
these patterns promote or hinder opportunities for learners
to practice the target language. This process allows language
teachers to study their own teaching behavior––specifically,
the frequency, distribution, and types of questions they use
and their effect on students’ responses.
Step One: Videotape a complete lesson. Be sure to capture
all of your questions and the students’ responses. (Opportunities
to speak the target language are often created by teachers’
questions.)
Step Two: Watch the videotape. As you watch it, think
about the types of questions you asked. Look for recurring
patterns in your questioning style and the impact it has on
the students’ responses.
Step Three: Transcribe the lesson. A transcript will make it
easier to identify the types of questions in the data and to
focus on specific questions and student responses.
Step Four: Analyze the videotape and transcript. Why did
you ask each question? What type of question was it––open
(e.g., “What points do you think the author was making in
the chapter you read yesterday?”) or closed (e.g., “Did you
like the chapter?”)? Was the question effective in terms of
your goals for teaching and learning? What effect did your
questions have on the students’ opportunities to practice the
target language? How did the students respond to different
types of questions? Were you satisfied with their responses?
Which questions elicited the most discussion from the students?
Did the students ask any questions? Focusing on actual
classroom interaction, teachers can investigate how one
aspect of their teaching style affects students’ opportunities
for speaking the target language. They can then make changes
that will allow students more practice with a wider variety of
discourse types.
Teachers can also use this process of Record-View-Transcribe-
Analyze to study communication patterns in different
classroom activities, such as student-to-student interactions
during a paired role-play task and during a small-group cooperative
learning activity. Communicative activities are expected
to promote interaction and to provide opportunities
for students to engage in talk. Teachers are likely to discover
that students produce different speech patterns in response
to different tasks. For example, a map activity is likely to elicit
a series of questions and answers among participants, whereas
a picture narration task requires a monologue developed
around a narrative format. Given that teachers use communicative
tasks to evaluate learners’ proficiency, a better understanding
of the influence of specific activities on learner
discourse will likely lead teachers to use a greater variety of
tasks in order to gain a more comprehensive picture of students’
abilities. By recording, transcribing, and analyzing students’
discourse, teachers can gain insight into the effect of
specific tasks on students’ language production and, over time,
on their language development.
A discourse analysis of classroom interactions can also shed
light on cross-cultural linguistic patterns that may be leading
to communication difficulties. For example, some speakers
may engage in overlap, speaking while someone else is taking
a turn-at-talk. For some linguistic groups, this discourse
behavior can be interpreted as a signal of engagement and
involvement; however, other speakers may view it as an interruption
and imposition on their speaking rights. Teachers
can use the Record-View-Transcribe-Analyze technique to
study cross-cultural interactions in their classrooms, helping
students identify different communication strategies and their
potential for miscommunication.
This digest was prepared with funding from the U.S. Dept. of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Library of Education, under contract no. ED-99-CO-0008. The opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of ED, OERI, or NLE.
Although some variables of language learning are beyond
the control of second language teachers, discourse analysis
can be a useful analytic tool for making informed changes in
instructional practices. Mainstream teachers, especially those
with second language learners, can also use this technique to
study classroom interactions in order to focus on the learning
opportunities available to students with limited English
proficiency. In fact, discourse analysis can be an integral part
of a program of professional development for all teachers that
includes classroom-based research, with the overall aim of
improving teaching (Johnson, 1995).
Discourse Analysis and Second Language
Learning
Language learners face the monumental task of acquiring
not only new vocabulary, syntactic patterns, and phonology,
but also discourse competence, sociolinguistic competence,
strategic competence, and interactional competence. They
need opportunities to investigate the systematicity of language
at all linguistic levels, especially at the highest level
(Riggenbach, 1999; Young and He, 1998). Without knowledge
of and experience with the discourse and sociocultural
patterns of the target language, second language learners are
likely to rely on the strategies and expectations acquired as
part of their first language development, which may be inappropriate
for the second language setting and may lead to
communication difficulties and misunderstandings.
One problem for second language learners is limited experience
with a variety of interactive practices in the target language.
Therefore, one of the goals of second language teaching
is to expose learners to different discourse patterns in different
texts and interactions. One way that teachers can include
the study of discourse in the second language classroom
is to allow the students themselves to study language,
that is, to make them discourse analysts (see Celce-Murcia &
Olshtain, 2000; McCarthy & Carter, 1994; Riggenbach, 1999).
By exploring natural language use in authentic environments,
learners gain a greater appreciation and understanding of the
discourse patterns associated with a given genre or speech
event as well as the sociolinguistic factors that contribute to
linguistic variation across settings and contexts. For example,
students can study speech acts in a service encounter, turntaking
patterns in a conversation between friends, opening
and closings of answering machine messages, or other aspects
of speech events. Riggenbach (1999) suggests a wide variety
of activities that can easily be adapted to suit a range of second
language learning contexts.
One discourse feature that is easy to study is listener response
behavior, also known as backchannels. Backchannels
are the brief verbal responses that a listener uses while another
individual is talking, such as mm-hmm, ok, yeah, and
oh wow. Listener response can also be non-verbal, for instance
head nods. Research has identified variation among languages
in the use of backchannels, which makes it an interesting
feature to study. Variation has been found not only in the
frequency of backchannels, but also in the type of
backchannels, their placement in the ongoing talk, and their
interpretation by the participants (Clancy, Thompson, Suzuki,
& Tao, 1996). Students can participate in the Record-View-
Transcribe-Analyze technique to study the linguistic form and
function of backchannels in conversation.
Step One: Ask to video- or audiotape a pair of native speakers
engaging in conversation, perhaps over coffee or lunch.
Step Two: Play the tape for students. Have them identify
patterns in the recorded linguistic behavior. In this case, pay
attention to the backchanneling behavior of the participants.
Is the same backchannel token used repeatedly, or is there
variation?
Step Three: Transcribe the conversation so that students
can count the number and types of backchannel tokens and
examine their placement within the discourse.
Step Four: Have students analyze specific discourse features
individually, in pairs, or in small groups. These are some
questions to consider: How often do the participants use a
backchannel token? How does backchanneling contribute to
the participants’ understanding of and involvement in the
conversation? How can differences in backchannel frequency
be explained? How does backchanneling work in the students’
native language?
Students can collect and analyze data themselves. Once
collected, this set of authentic language data can be repeatedly
examined for other conversational features, then later
compared to discourse features found in other speech events.
This discourse approach to language learning removes language
from the confines of textbooks and makes it tangible,
so that students can explore language as interaction rather
than as grammatical units. Teachers can also use these activities
to raise students’ awareness of language variation, dialect
differences, and cultural diversity.
Conclusion
In sum, teachers can use discourse analysis not only as a
research method for investigating their own teaching practices
but also as a tool for studying interactions among language
learners. Learners can benefit from using discourse
analysis to explore what language is and how it is used to
achieve communicative goals in different contexts. Thus discourse
analysis can help to create a second language learning
environment that more accurately reflects how language is
used and encourages learners toward their goal of proficiency
in another language.
References
Celce-Murcia, M., & Olshtain, E. (2000). Discourse and context in
language teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Clancy, P., Thompson, S., Suzuki, R., & Tao, H. (1996) The conversational
use of reactive tokens in English, Japanese, and Mandarin.
Journal of Pragmatics, 26, 355-387.
Hatch, E. (1992). Discourse and language education. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Johnson, K. (1995). Understanding communication in second language
classrooms. New York: Cambridge University Press.
McCarthy, M. (1992). Discourse analysis for language teachers. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
McCarthy, M., & Carter, R. (1994). Language as discourse: Perspectives
for language teachers. New York: Longman.
Riggenbach, H. (1999). Discourse analysis in the language classroom:
Volume 1. The spoken language. Ann Arbor, MI: University of
Michigan Press.
Schiffrin, D. (1994). Approaches to discourse. Oxford: Blackwell.
Young, R., & He, A. (1998). Talking and testing: Discourse approaches
to the assessment of oral proficiency. Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
ERIC CLEARINGHOUSE ON LANGUAGES AND LINGUISTICS • 800-276-9834 • ERIC@CAL.ORG • WWW.CAL.ORG/ERICCLL
Discourse analysis is the examination of language use by
members of a speech community. It involves looking at both
language form and language function and includes the study
of both spoken interaction and written texts. It identifies linguistic
features that characterize different genres as well as
social and cultural factors that aid in our interpretation and
understanding of different texts and types of talk. A discourse
analysis of written texts might include a study of topic development
and cohesion across the sentences, while an analysis
of spoken language might focus on these aspects plus turntaking
practices, opening and closing sequences of social encounters,
or narrative structure.
The study of discourse has developed in a variety of disciplines—
sociolinguistics, anthropology, sociology, and social
psychology. Thus discourse analysis takes different theoretical
perspectives and analytic approaches: speech act theory,
interactional sociolinguistics, ethnography of communication,
pragmatics, conversation analysis, and variation analysis
(Schiffrin, 1994). Although each approach emphasizes different
aspects of language use, they all view language as social
interaction.
This digest focuses on the application of discourse analysis
to second language teaching and learning. It provides examples
of how teachers can improve their teaching practices
by investigating actual language use both in and out of the
classroom, and how students can learn language through
exposure to different types of discourse. Detailed introductions
to discourse analysis, with special attention to the needs
and experiences of language teachers, can be found in Celce-
Murcia and Olshtain (2000), Hatch (1992), McCarthy (1992),
McCarthy and Carter (1994), and Riggenbach (1999).
Discourse Analysis and Second Language
Teaching
Even with the most communicative approaches, the second
language classroom is limited in its ability to develop
learners’ communicative competence in the target language.
This is due to the restricted number of contact hours with
the language; minimal opportunities for interacting with
native speakers; and limited exposure to the variety of functions,
genres, speech events, and discourse types that occur
outside the classroom. Given the limited time available for
students to practice the target language, teachers should maximize
opportunities for student participation. Classroom research
is one way for teachers to monitor both the quantity
and quality of students’ output. By following a four-part process
of Record-View-Transcribe-Analyze, second language
teachers can use discourse analytic techniques to investigate
the interaction patterns in their classrooms and to see how
these patterns promote or hinder opportunities for learners
to practice the target language. This process allows language
teachers to study their own teaching behavior––specifically,
the frequency, distribution, and types of questions they use
and their effect on students’ responses.
Step One: Videotape a complete lesson. Be sure to capture
all of your questions and the students’ responses. (Opportunities
to speak the target language are often created by teachers’
questions.)
Step Two: Watch the videotape. As you watch it, think
about the types of questions you asked. Look for recurring
patterns in your questioning style and the impact it has on
the students’ responses.
Step Three: Transcribe the lesson. A transcript will make it
easier to identify the types of questions in the data and to
focus on specific questions and student responses.
Step Four: Analyze the videotape and transcript. Why did
you ask each question? What type of question was it––open
(e.g., “What points do you think the author was making in
the chapter you read yesterday?”) or closed (e.g., “Did you
like the chapter?”)? Was the question effective in terms of
your goals for teaching and learning? What effect did your
questions have on the students’ opportunities to practice the
target language? How did the students respond to different
types of questions? Were you satisfied with their responses?
Which questions elicited the most discussion from the students?
Did the students ask any questions? Focusing on actual
classroom interaction, teachers can investigate how one
aspect of their teaching style affects students’ opportunities
for speaking the target language. They can then make changes
that will allow students more practice with a wider variety of
discourse types.
Teachers can also use this process of Record-View-Transcribe-
Analyze to study communication patterns in different
classroom activities, such as student-to-student interactions
during a paired role-play task and during a small-group cooperative
learning activity. Communicative activities are expected
to promote interaction and to provide opportunities
for students to engage in talk. Teachers are likely to discover
that students produce different speech patterns in response
to different tasks. For example, a map activity is likely to elicit
a series of questions and answers among participants, whereas
a picture narration task requires a monologue developed
around a narrative format. Given that teachers use communicative
tasks to evaluate learners’ proficiency, a better understanding
of the influence of specific activities on learner
discourse will likely lead teachers to use a greater variety of
tasks in order to gain a more comprehensive picture of students’
abilities. By recording, transcribing, and analyzing students’
discourse, teachers can gain insight into the effect of
specific tasks on students’ language production and, over time,
on their language development.
A discourse analysis of classroom interactions can also shed
light on cross-cultural linguistic patterns that may be leading
to communication difficulties. For example, some speakers
may engage in overlap, speaking while someone else is taking
a turn-at-talk. For some linguistic groups, this discourse
behavior can be interpreted as a signal of engagement and
involvement; however, other speakers may view it as an interruption
and imposition on their speaking rights. Teachers
can use the Record-View-Transcribe-Analyze technique to
study cross-cultural interactions in their classrooms, helping
students identify different communication strategies and their
potential for miscommunication.
This digest was prepared with funding from the U.S. Dept. of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Library of Education, under contract no. ED-99-CO-0008. The opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of ED, OERI, or NLE.
Although some variables of language learning are beyond
the control of second language teachers, discourse analysis
can be a useful analytic tool for making informed changes in
instructional practices. Mainstream teachers, especially those
with second language learners, can also use this technique to
study classroom interactions in order to focus on the learning
opportunities available to students with limited English
proficiency. In fact, discourse analysis can be an integral part
of a program of professional development for all teachers that
includes classroom-based research, with the overall aim of
improving teaching (Johnson, 1995).
Discourse Analysis and Second Language
Learning
Language learners face the monumental task of acquiring
not only new vocabulary, syntactic patterns, and phonology,
but also discourse competence, sociolinguistic competence,
strategic competence, and interactional competence. They
need opportunities to investigate the systematicity of language
at all linguistic levels, especially at the highest level
(Riggenbach, 1999; Young and He, 1998). Without knowledge
of and experience with the discourse and sociocultural
patterns of the target language, second language learners are
likely to rely on the strategies and expectations acquired as
part of their first language development, which may be inappropriate
for the second language setting and may lead to
communication difficulties and misunderstandings.
One problem for second language learners is limited experience
with a variety of interactive practices in the target language.
Therefore, one of the goals of second language teaching
is to expose learners to different discourse patterns in different
texts and interactions. One way that teachers can include
the study of discourse in the second language classroom
is to allow the students themselves to study language,
that is, to make them discourse analysts (see Celce-Murcia &
Olshtain, 2000; McCarthy & Carter, 1994; Riggenbach, 1999).
By exploring natural language use in authentic environments,
learners gain a greater appreciation and understanding of the
discourse patterns associated with a given genre or speech
event as well as the sociolinguistic factors that contribute to
linguistic variation across settings and contexts. For example,
students can study speech acts in a service encounter, turntaking
patterns in a conversation between friends, opening
and closings of answering machine messages, or other aspects
of speech events. Riggenbach (1999) suggests a wide variety
of activities that can easily be adapted to suit a range of second
language learning contexts.
One discourse feature that is easy to study is listener response
behavior, also known as backchannels. Backchannels
are the brief verbal responses that a listener uses while another
individual is talking, such as mm-hmm, ok, yeah, and
oh wow. Listener response can also be non-verbal, for instance
head nods. Research has identified variation among languages
in the use of backchannels, which makes it an interesting
feature to study. Variation has been found not only in the
frequency of backchannels, but also in the type of
backchannels, their placement in the ongoing talk, and their
interpretation by the participants (Clancy, Thompson, Suzuki,
& Tao, 1996). Students can participate in the Record-View-
Transcribe-Analyze technique to study the linguistic form and
function of backchannels in conversation.
Step One: Ask to video- or audiotape a pair of native speakers
engaging in conversation, perhaps over coffee or lunch.
Step Two: Play the tape for students. Have them identify
patterns in the recorded linguistic behavior. In this case, pay
attention to the backchanneling behavior of the participants.
Is the same backchannel token used repeatedly, or is there
variation?
Step Three: Transcribe the conversation so that students
can count the number and types of backchannel tokens and
examine their placement within the discourse.
Step Four: Have students analyze specific discourse features
individually, in pairs, or in small groups. These are some
questions to consider: How often do the participants use a
backchannel token? How does backchanneling contribute to
the participants’ understanding of and involvement in the
conversation? How can differences in backchannel frequency
be explained? How does backchanneling work in the students’
native language?
Students can collect and analyze data themselves. Once
collected, this set of authentic language data can be repeatedly
examined for other conversational features, then later
compared to discourse features found in other speech events.
This discourse approach to language learning removes language
from the confines of textbooks and makes it tangible,
so that students can explore language as interaction rather
than as grammatical units. Teachers can also use these activities
to raise students’ awareness of language variation, dialect
differences, and cultural diversity.
Conclusion
In sum, teachers can use discourse analysis not only as a
research method for investigating their own teaching practices
but also as a tool for studying interactions among language
learners. Learners can benefit from using discourse
analysis to explore what language is and how it is used to
achieve communicative goals in different contexts. Thus discourse
analysis can help to create a second language learning
environment that more accurately reflects how language is
used and encourages learners toward their goal of proficiency
in another language.
References
Celce-Murcia, M., & Olshtain, E. (2000). Discourse and context in
language teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Clancy, P., Thompson, S., Suzuki, R., & Tao, H. (1996) The conversational
use of reactive tokens in English, Japanese, and Mandarin.
Journal of Pragmatics, 26, 355-387.
Hatch, E. (1992). Discourse and language education. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Johnson, K. (1995). Understanding communication in second language
classrooms. New York: Cambridge University Press.
McCarthy, M. (1992). Discourse analysis for language teachers. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
McCarthy, M., & Carter, R. (1994). Language as discourse: Perspectives
for language teachers. New York: Longman.
Riggenbach, H. (1999). Discourse analysis in the language classroom:
Volume 1. The spoken language. Ann Arbor, MI: University of
Michigan Press.
Schiffrin, D. (1994). Approaches to discourse. Oxford: Blackwell.
Young, R., & He, A. (1998). Talking and testing: Discourse approaches
to the assessment of oral proficiency. Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
ERIC CLEARINGHOUSE ON LANGUAGES AND LINGUISTICS • 800-276-9834 • ERIC@CAL.ORG • WWW.CAL.ORG/ERICCLL
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